Mad honey, also known as the ‘bhir maha’, is a unique honey from a remote village in Nepal. The Himalayan giant honey bee Apis Labriosa Dorsata produces mad honey by feeding on wildflowers and rhododendron flowers. It is a rarely found honey in the world that you can only find in countries like Turkey, and Nepal. Also, it can be obtained from some parts of the Himalayas.
Gurungs are the skillful local tribesmen who are the masters of honey hunting. Since honey has been a staple in their local diet, they have grown up consuming it. Consequently, they had the chance to reap its benefits. They saw a noticeable elevation in their physical and mental energies.
Mad Honey History
Although people have recently unearthed mad honey, it has been relevant and prevailing for centuries. Both Nepal and Turkey have a fine share of mad honey histories. Xenophon mentioned in his chronicle Anabasis about the fatal effects of mad honey in 401 B.C.E
A Greek army stole the Turkish honey after defeating the Persians in Trabzon(now Northeastern Turkey). To celebrate their victory, the Greek military consumed the honey, only to face extreme discomforts like vomiting, diarrhea, and unconsciousness. However, the symptoms subsided the next day.
Interestingly, there is also an ancient anecdote where honey has come as an aid to win a strategic war. The historic event occurred in 67 B.C.E. when the Romans came to Persian territory.
In Trabzon, Persian soldiers were grilled and left with a lower hand during the war. The Roman general Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus(Pompey the Great) and his Roman army drove away the Persian King Mithridates of Pontus and his troops.
They hatched a plot with their readily available jars of mad honey at their forthcoming defeat. They faked their friendship with the Romans and offered them a spoonful of honey. They overconsumed the mad honey with sheer excitement, not knowing how lethal it would be. Hours later, they became weaker and couldn’t even lift a finger. One by one, nearly 1000 Roman troops were dead.
About 25 tons of mad honey were exported every year from the Black Sea Region to Europe in the 18th century. It was popular as miel fou(crazy honey) amongst the French. The French would add it to beer and other alcoholic beverages to enhance the potency.
In New Jersey, beekeepers in Pennsylvania became intoxicated by mad honey by mixing liquor and sold it in New Jersey named “metheglin”(mead). American botanists noted this event and analyzed that the intoxication is pleasant at first, but quickly it could become a risk. The documentary Gleaning in Bee Culture showed several incidents of mad honey intoxication reported among Southern soldiers in 1875.
Active Ingredients
Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization shows that the bee pollen gathered from the Rhododendron flower has a strong chemical profile. The researchers found 31 elements and 42 amino acids. 33 phenolics, and various vitamins like C, and B2. B5, and B6. Whereas, its nutrient profile comprises Magnesium(Mg), Phosphorus(P), Calcium(Ca), and Iron(Fe).
The plant pollen is the main source of protein for the honeybees and is also a source of essential amino acids such as arginine, histidine, lysine, tryptophan, etc.
Grayanotoxins
The Rhododendron family includes over 750 species, where toxins grayanotoxins(GTXs) are common in many. In Turkey, five species of rhododendron flowers are present, including R. ponticum (purple flower) and R. luteum (yellow flower) that grow from sea level to about 3200 meters in altitude.
Grayanotoxin is a neurotoxin found in the plant family Ericaceae(heather), including Rhododendron, Leucothoe, and Kalmia. These toxins got their name from the Japanese plant Leucothoe grayana. Primarily the Japanese researchers discovered grayanotoxin I-III from Leucothoe grayana. Grayanotoxin IV was only found in the subsequent year 1964.
The toxin in the Rhododendron plants is found in the green plants and in their nectar, flower, and pollen. The giant honeybees – Apis Dorsata Laboriosa collect toxin pollen and nectar to produce the mad honey honey.
Today, we can find grayanotoxin in its 18 forms, each with its own distinct effects and benefits However, in Turkey, only R. ponticum and R. luteum produce these toxins. Grayanotoxins I-IV are the most prominent ones with their different levels of toxicity. Grayanotoxin I affects atrioventricular conduction and sinoatrial nodes, causing significant heart issues. In 1912, German phytochemist Otto Tunmann had to isolate grayanotoxin- I for its toxic properties.
Grayanotoxin II reduces the natural rhythm of the sinoatrial node by altering cell membrane permeability to sodium ions. The 2nd form of grayanotoxin has the least toxin out of all. Grayanotoxin III causes arrhythmias by triggering abnormal electrical activity in heart cells.
Fig 1: Molecular Structure of GTX I-II-III
Recent studies have shown Rhododendron plants and their plants use chromatography-mass spectrometry(GC-MS) for toxicological analysis. However, liquid chromatography is also popular due to its easy sample preparation, quicker analysis, and lower detection limits. GC-MS has limitations in analyzing grayanotoxins (GTXs) since it is unstable when heated. Also, derivatization is required before analysis because it has low vapor pressure.
Its severity depends on the amount of consumption, season of production, and its concentration. Ingestion with moderation concerning age, gender, and health can cause no harm.
Reading the product’s label to align with one’s body’s needs can prevent dangerous symptoms. Its symptoms last no more than a day since the human body can metabolize and excrete grayanotoxin in only 24 hours.
Other Compounds(Polyphenols, Flavonoids, Antioxidants)
Rhododendron ponticum plant was divided into two parts – corolla, and calyx for analysis. An antioxidant activity test was performed using ABTS and DPPH methods. HPLC technique identified 9 phenolic acids and 3 flavonoids. The methanolic extract of flowers possessed stronger antioxidant activity than leaves. Plus, it had the highest phenolic and flavonoid content.
| Compound | Measuring Method | Content |
|---|---|---|
| Polyphenols | Modified Folin-Ciocalteu method | 285.44±118.43 mg GAE/kg (ranging from 125.85 to 471.18 mg GAE/kg). |
| Flavonoids | Colorimetric method using aluminum chloride (AlCl3). | 29.68±7.2 mg AAE/kg (ranging from 21.71 to 35.03 mg AAE/kg). |
| Antioxidant | Based on the free radical scavenging effect of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH).fied Folin-Ciocalteu method | 27.26±4.79 mg QE/kg (ranging from 19.93 to 39.18 mg QE/kg). |
Fig 2: Compound, Measuring Method, and Content
Medicinal Properties
Antibacterial Properties
Mad honey has antibacterial properties that fight off the staphylococcus aureus. This bacteria is a common cause of skin infections and other conditions. The honey contains a compound that can inhibit bacterial growth. It can be a home remedy for infections typically not treated with conventional antibiotics.
Anti-inflammatory Properties
The anti-inflammatory effects of honey inhibit the pathways like COX-2. COX-2 is an enzyme associated with inflammation and pain. Modulating these pathways reduces inflammatory conditions like arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, heart disease, etc. Also, anti-inflammatory properties help accelerate its ability to promote wound healing and reduce swelling.
Antiviral Properties
Mad honey has demonstrated effectiveness against specific viruses, particularly influenza, leading to interference with viral replication or elevating the response of the immune system to infect
Antioxidant Properties
A study showed that mad honey has an apt content of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that can promote improved wound healing in diabetic rats. Its lower malondialdehyde(MDA) levels and decreased expression of inflammatory markers (TNF-α and MMP-9) suggested reduced oxidative stress.
Moreover, it enhanced the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the expression of the anti-inflammatory marker IL-10.
The phenolic compounds with antioxidant properties protect cells from free radical damage. The healthy cells have balanced oxidants and antioxidants. However, the oxidative stress from free radicals can disrupt this balance, which damages essential biomolecules like nucleic acids, proteins, and fatty acids.
Traditional Uses
Several studies have shown that mad honey can be used as a part of alternative medicine. It has been used in traditional Nepalese and Turkish folk medicines because of its recreational, hallucinogenic, and medicinal effects. In these countries, it has been used to treat gastritis, bowel disorders, hypertension, etc. Although this rare honey is toxic, the locals still trust it for its medicinal benefits.
The tradition of Nepal shows immense respect for ancient spices, herbs, and food. Due to their habits of depending on the traditional way, the older generation is still robust and active. Likewise, the Gurungs are called the bravest and strongest tribesmen of Nepal. While hunting the honey for their livelihood, they also consumed it.
Digestive Health
Within a few days of usage, they could observe noticeable improvements in their digestion, respiration, and other aspects. The enzymes in mad honey enable the better absorption of nutrients like carbohydrates.
Raw mad honey also has prebiotics that nourish the good bacteria in the intestine. Due to its antibacterial properties, it can treat digestive disorders like gastritis and stomach ulcers. The nutrient profile of pollen includes Mg, P, Fe, Ca, a high K/Na ratio, and vitamins C, B2, B5, and B6, which are beneficial for good gut health.
Respiratory Ailment
Since mad honey has anti-inflammatory properties, it can reduce inflammation in the airways in the lungs i.e. bronchial tubes, and makes breathing easier by breaking up mucus. Additionally, it has been linked to relieving cough and sore throat. T
The locals have been making herbal tea using a spoonful of honey to relieve their symptoms of severe cough and irritated throat. It showed that the GTX increased pain tolerance in the acute pain model. Grayanotoxin (0.1 mg/kg) improved pain thresholds, reducing the mean pain latency from 3.2 seconds before treatment to 2.4 seconds at 100 minutes after administration.
Sexual Health
Infamously known as the aphrodisiac honey, it can improve the sexual health of both men and women. In the past, the male used to consume it to gain stamina to last longer during sexual intercourse. Also, some studies show that it increases sperm quality and quantity in men.
Wound Healing
In a research study, the grayanotoxin in mad honey significantly enhanced fracture healing within only 30 days due to its positive effects on the nervous system, bone metabolism, and vascularity in the fracture area. Also, the research concludes that normal regular honey showed less significant improvement in fracture healing.
Health Benefits
Cardiovascular Health
Mad honey can protect the blood vessels and heart from oxidative stress and inflammation due to its antioxidant content like flavonoids and phenolic compounds. These compounds play a role in reducing LDL(bad cholesterol) cholesterol levels while increasing HDL cholesterol(good cholesterol) levels. As a result, it reduces the chances of heart damage in adults.
Neurological Health
The bioactive compounds positively affect brain health, enhancing memory and cognitive performance. The neuroprotective effects of mad honey are found due to its ability to modulate neurotransmitter activity, reduce oxidative stress, and encourage better blood flow to the brain.
Immunity System
Minerals like potassium and calcium promote the normal levels of fluid of cells inside your body, leading to muscle and bone building. The phenolic compounds enhance the body’s immune response.
These compounds strengthen the immune system by neutralizing harmful free radicals, reducing inflammation, and promoting the production and activity of immune cells. Due to its immune response, it enables the human body to fight off infections, lessening the illness’s severity.
Metabolic Benefits
Some studies show that the unique compound – grayanotoxin offers potential metabolic effects. It shows a modulating effect on glucose metabolism. It is also beneficial for individuals who are diabetic and have to maintain stable sugar levels. It also has low glycemic index(GI) content, it doesn’t spike up blood sugar levels in diabetics.
Dosage and Administration
While mad honey may possess potential health benefits, it is important to exercise caution when considering its consumption due to the presence of grayanotoxins, which can be toxic in large quantities.
Recommended dosages of mad honey differ depending on age. Adults aged 18 to 35 begin with 1 to 2 tablespoons, while those over 35 are advised to limit their intake to 1 tablespoon. Children should avoid consuming mad honey completely due to potential health risks.
Moreover, individuals with specific health conditions should consult with their health professional before consuming mad honey. It is also not recommended for pregnant, breastfeeding women. Also, individuals with allergies should consult their doctors.
How Can You Use Mad Honey?
Mad honey can be used in various ways depending on your needs. It can be consumed directly or mixed with food or beverages. Due to its antiseptic properties, it can also be applied topically. Moreover, it is suitable for DIY treatments on certain skin and hair.
Toxicity in Mad Honey
Most cases of mad honey intoxication occur in men aged 40 to 60, typically due to its use as a sexual stimulant and for managing hypertension. Consuming 15 to 30 grams of mad honey can lead to intoxication, with symptoms appearing within 30 minutes to 4 hours.
Men are five times more likely than women to experience mad honey poisoning. However, long-term use may lead to desensitization, helping to reduce the severity of symptoms over time.
A study on anesthetized rats found that high doses of honey cause slowing of the heart and breathing, whereas lower doses did not show signs of bradycardia. Moreover, rats with their vagus nerves cut did not have heart slowing. Thus, the grayanotoxin affects the heart and breathing via the central nervous system, involving stimulation of the vagus nerve.
The studies also show that honey has hallucinogenic effects, although it can be moderated with the recommended dosage. Otherwise, there is a chance of high distortion in thoughts, leading to anxiety.
What are the Side Effects of Mad Honey?
Grayanotoxins bind to sodium channels, preventing their inactivation, and leading to various symptoms. These symptoms include dizziness, excessive sweating, vomiting, tingling sensation, low blood pressure, blurred vision, convulsions, etc. Its treatment involves intravenous fluids and atropine to manage low blood pressure and slow heart rate.
Cultural and Economic Impact
Mad honey plays a notable role in local traditions, particularly in regions where it is harvested from Rhododendron flowers. It is often used in traditional rituals, ceremonies, and folk remedies. In some cultures, it is valued for its supposed aphrodisiac properties and its historical use in treating various ailments.
For thousands of years, mad honey has been prominent in some local traditions, especially where it is harvested from Rhododendron flowers. The locals often use it in traditional rituals, ceremonies, and ancient home remedies. In the Gurung community, it is posed as aphrodisiac properties and its historical use in treating various disorders.
Currently, the honey-hunting business is thriving due to rising media coverage and exposure. The mad honey itself is expensive due to its rarity and medicinal properties. Thus, mad honey is a high-value product in the import and export industries.
The honey is usually sold at premium prices, hence its trade can benefit local economies by providing income to the honey hunters.
Conclusion
Mad honey offers several potential benefits, including its use as an aphrodisiac, treatment for digestive disorders, boosting the immune system, recreational honey and promoting cardiovascular health. However, overlooking its side effects should be avoided.
Ingestion should be limited, especially for individuals with pre-existing health conditions or sensitive to its effects. It is recommended to consult a healthcare professional before using mad honey, particularly for medicinal purposes.
Additionally, users should be aware of the poisoning symptoms and seek medical attention promptly if adverse effects occur.
References
- How eating ‘mad honey’ cost Pompey the Great 1,000 soldiers – Research@Texas A&M | Inform, Inspire, Amaze. (2014, November 3). https://research.tamu.edu/2014/11/03/how-eating-mad-honey-cost-pompey-the-great-1000-soldiers/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CThe%20Persians%20gathered%20pots%20full,found%20in%20Turkey%20and%20beyond.
- Bayram, N. E. (2021). Vitamin, mineral, polyphenol, the amino acid profile of bee pollen from Rhododendron ponticum (source of “mad honey”): nutritional and palynological approach. Journal of Food Measurement & Characterization, 15(3), 2659–2666. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-021-00854-5
- Sahin, A., Turkmen, S., Guzel, N., Mentese, A., Turedi, S., Karahan, S. C., Yulug, E., Demir, S., Aynaci, O., Deger, O., & Gunduz, A. (2018b). A comparison of the effects of Grayanotoxin-Containing Honey (Mad Honey), normal honey, and propolis on fracture healing. Medical Principles and Practice, 27(2), 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1159/000487552
- Onat, F., Yegen, B. C., Lawrence, R., Oktay, A., & Oktay, S. (1991). Site of action of grayanotoxins in mad honey in rats. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 11(3), 199–201. https://doi.org/10.1002/jat.2550110308
- Grayanotoxins – American Chemical Society. (n.d.). American Chemical Society. https://www.acs.org/molecule-of-the-week/archive/g/grayanotoxins.html
- Malkoç, M., Laghari, A. Q., Kolayli, S., & Can, Z. (2016). Phenolic Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Rhododendron ponticum: Traditional Nectar Source for Mad Honey. Analytical Chemistry Letters, 6(3), 224–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/22297928.2016.1196605
- Sahin, H., Turumtay, E. A., Yildiz, O., & Kolayli, S. (2015). Grayanotoxin-III detection and antioxidant activity of Mad honey. International Journal of Food Properties, 18(12), 2665–2674. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2014.999866
- Kurtdede, E., & Baran, B. (2021). Evaluation of the antioxidant potential of the mad honey collected from the black sea region in Turkey. Journal of Advances in VetBio Science and Techniques, 6(3), 243–250. https://doi.org/10.31797/vetbio.960851
- Malkoç, M., Yaman, S. Ö., Imamoğlu, Y., İnce, İ., Kural, B. V., Mungan, S., Livaoglu, M., Yıldız, O., Kolaylı, S., & Orem, A. (2019). Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and wound-healing effects of mad honey in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Journal of Apicultural Research, 59(4), 426–436. https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2019.1689036
- Gunduz, A., Eraydin, I., Turkmen, S., Kalkan, O. F., Turedi, S., Eryigit, U., & Ayar, A. (2013). Analgesic effects of mad honey (grayanotoxin) in mice models of acute pain and painful diabetic neuropathy. Human & Experimental Toxicology, 33(2), 130–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0960327113482693
